Phonological and orthographic factors in the word-superiority effect

Phonological and orthographic aspects of a letter string were found to affect the identification of a component letter in three experiments. All involved a fixed set of target vowels presented in a fixed position in letter strings. Manipulations of the phonological nature of the target or the orthographic character of the string were made by adding a letter with the postexposure mask to the original CVC trigram. In Experiment 1, the addition of an E with the mask as a final letter to the string changed the pronunciation of the target vowel, whereas the addition of an S did not. Identification accuracy was higher with the S mask. In Experiment 2, either E or D could be added to CVCs that were equally orthographic but differentially pronounceable. The same added letter had quite different effects on accuracy, depending on its effect on target pronunciation and the orthographic regularity of the string. In Experiment 3, performance on targets in orthographic CVCs was lowered to the level of nonorthographic CVCs by adding a letter that rendered the entire string nonorthographic. The results are explained by assuming that phonological and graphemic codes are developed simultaneously but maintained in a nonindependent manner.